Tooth Harrow
Tooth Harrow
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Tooth Harrow
Need advice on rebuilding weed-ridden lawn?
Roto-tilled 6,000 sq ft several directions, dragged numerous times with homemade spiked-tooth harrow. All this turned sandy soil into powder. I plan to lay down 6 inches of spoiled hay, wait 'til next spring, turn that under, fertilize then seed around next May.Hay will add humus (badly needed), using starter fertilizer, quality seed. Will this work?
Hey Robert,
Getting organic matter into the soil is always a good idea. Get a soil test from your county extension program/agents. They will tell you exactly what treatment is needed on your lawn and grass type for a healthy soil. You will have to adjust the search below so it adds your state/county, to get the closest office to you. The test is EASY, and cheap $6.00 in South Carolina.
The county agents have saved me hundreds of dollars if not thousands in great advice, preventing overuse of wrong chemicals, planting right plants, right place, etc. Trust this advice.
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Tooth Harrow
The history of the death penalty in Florence, Italy, from the XIV to the XVIII century by Fabrizio de Lorenzo
Right or wrong? From the Code of Hamurrabi with its lex talionis ("an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth") to the criminal codes of many contemporary states, capital punishment has always gone hand in hand with the history of man.
The question whether or not it is an effective way to prevent or combat crime, however, belongs to modern history. Before the Enlightenment's ideals of progress and social equity, the death penalty had never been seriously questioned.
In Florence, the situation was not so dissimilar from what happened in other Italian and European states. Rigorous imprisonment, torture and gallows were all constants of the judicial system. The main sources of information about death sentences and executions that took place in Florence since the Middle Ages come from the records of the Otto di Guardia e Balia and the Compagnia dei Neri.
But let's explain who they were.
The Office of the Otto di Guardia e Balia (Eight on Public Safety) was established in 1375, called the "Eight" because it consisted of eight officers, two per district (Santa Maria Novella, Santo Spirito, Santa Croce, San Giovanni). They began as political police and had jurisdictional functions throughout the city and the Florentine dominion (as evidenced by the numerous and intimidating stone plaques we can still see in many streets of Florence). The judgment of the Eight was unappelable.
But it is the Compagnia dei Neri (Company of the Blacks) to represent one of the most interesting organizations to understand the judicial system and the capital punishment in Florence, both for their social function and for their meticulous archival activity. Their memorial is an invaluable source of information to know dates, names, crimes, sentences and places of execution in Florence within the space of four centuries. The Society of St. Mary of the Cross was established in 1356 with the task of assisting those condemned to death. Its "brothers" were called the Blacks from 1424 on, because of the piece of clothing they wore. They were all volunteers and ordinary citizens with great qualities like dedication, compassion and patience for what was a real chore. They wore a long black tunic with a high hood to cover their faces.
The Blacks were informed by the authorities 10 hours before the execution took place. Some brothers went to the Bargello palace to start their rituals to comfort the sentenced. The palace took its name from the captain of military justice with full powers and with the supreme task of controlling public order, often in an authoritarian and dictatorial way. That officer was called the Bargello from 1574 on and so the same word then passed to indicate the palace where he resided.
In the small chapel of the palace the Blacks started to pray with the final purpose to persuade the prisoner to confess and redeem himself. Facing the gallows with a purified soul would have guaranteed at least a more peaceful life after death.
The Bargello was a scary place mainly because of its prison but also because it was site of countless executions. However, no one was allowed to watch but the officers and the Blacks. On the contrary a veritable crowd of onlookers thronged around the public gallows.
The official gallows were outside the city walls. Since the mid-1300s the "usual place of justice" was near the Torre della Zecca, close to the "Temple", the chapel of the Company of the Blacks. In 1531 because of the various fortifications wanted by the first Duke of Florence, Alessandro de' Medici, the scaffold was moved a few hundred meters outside Porta alla Croce, one of the many city gates (near the present Piazza Beccaria).
Wherever the place of execution was, the setting and the drama was always the same.
At the fixed hour the offender was carried around the streets of the city center, forced to walk in a gruesome procession. The grisly parade heading to the scaffold included not only the poor offender and the Blacks but also a band of "cops" and the omnipresent death squad with the executioner and his helpers. This harrowing and often violent procession was scheduled to stop in front of the countless sacred tabernacles of the city streets for the ritual purifying prayers.
After this long and distressing walk, the march finally reached the gallows. Often the crowd thronged around the scaffold to watch.
Superstition, religion and weird social customs coexisted in a bizarre syncretic mixture difficult to understand today. For example, once on the scaffold, the convict was invited to say a special prayer called "the protest" that would immunize his or her soul against any other offense committed before dying, such as the blasphemy. Torture was a normal practice but the confession could not be accepted while it was in progress: the "master of torment" had to stop to allow the unfortunate to confess. In fact no confession was accepted and considered valid under torture.
It is interesting to notice that sentences were proportional to the type of crime. The beheading was a more honorable death than hanging, and quartering after hanging was the ultimate humiliation for the condemned man and a great infamy: a conviction for the most heinous and reprehensible crimes.
If we shudder at this scenario it is because our social sensibility cannot allow us to conceive a society where corpses were butchered and quarters hung like trophies. At that time common man was certainly accustomed to death and a general atmosphere of violence that was understandable, acceptable ... normal.
But everything would change over the centuries. The "master of tortures and torments", ie the executioner, would retire forever.
A series of political upheavals throughout Europe would lead to a deep cultural revolution. The Medici, the dynasty that ruled and controlled Florence's and Tuscany's political life during four centuries, died out. Due to complex international political tactics, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was assigned to the Habsburg dynasty of Lorraine.
One of the most beloved Grand Dukes of the new regnant family was Pietro Leopoldo, who distinguished himself for his reforms permeated with the ideals of the Enlightenment movement.
The Age of Reason revolutionized European history, upsetting the political and cultural climate of the continent.
On November 30, 1786 the new criminal code came into force: the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was the first country in the world to abolish the death penalty.
But that did not mean radical changes. Death penalty was replaced by hard labor for life. Torture was abolished but severe corporal punishment was still used: lashes in public, exile, pillory. The convicts had to wear a different color piece of clothing with a sewed sign that read "Last Torment". The atmosphere was not too different from the days when the sentenced had to wear a macabre sign around his neck which had written on it the reason of his death: "forger", "murderer", etc ...
With things as they were, however, the reform of Pietro Leopoldo was without precedent.
Pietro Leopoldo disbands the Office of the Eight on Safety in 1777 and the Society of St. Mary of the Cross in 1785. The last sentence of death recorded by the Blacks dates back to 1754: it is the last execution recorded in the manuscript. The Blacks would not comfort convicts anymore.
According to the many records, from May 5, 1356 to September 4, 1754 the condemned men were about 2500.
The death penalty in Florence had come to the end of its life.
Author: Fabrizio de Lorenzo © 2011 (www.florence-city-tours.com)
About the Author
Florence Licensed Tourist Guide
Art and History Expert, Interpreter and Translator
Tooth Harrow
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